What are the different types of laboratory tests?
Clinical chemistry uses chemical processes to measure levels of chemical components in body fluids and tissues. The most common specimens used in clinical chemistry are blood and urine. Many different tests exist to detect and measure almost any type of chemical component in blood or urine. Components may include blood glucose, electrolytes, enzymes, hormones, lipids (fats), other metabolic substances and proteins. The following are some of the more common laboratory tests:
- Blood tests – a variety of blood tests are used to check the levels of substances in the blood that indicate how healthy the body is and whether infection is present. For example, blood tests revealing elevated levels of waste products, such as creatinine or blood urea nitrogen, indicate that the kidneys are not working efficiently to filter out those substances. Other tests check the presence of electrolytes — chemical compounds such as sodium and potassium that are critical to the body’s healthy functioning. Coagulation studies determine how quickly the blood clots.
A complete blood count measures the size, number and maturity of the different blood cells in a specific volume of blood, and is one of the most common tests performed. Red blood cells are important for carrying oxygen and fighting anemia and fatigue; the hemoglobin portion of the CBC measures the oxygen carrying capacity of the red blood cells while the hematocrit measures the percentage of red blood cells in the blood. White blood cells fight infection. Increased numbers of white blood cells, therefore, may indicate the presence of an infection. Platelets prevent the body from bleeding and bruising easily. - Urinalysis – breaks down the components of urine to check for the presence of drugs, blood, protein and other substances. Blood in the urine (hematuria) may be the result of a benign (noncancerous) condition, but it also can indicate an infection or other problem. High levels of protein in the urine (proteinuria) may indicate a kidney or cardiovascular problem.
- Tumor markers– are substances either released by cancer cells into the blood or urine, or are substances created by the body in response to cancer cells. Tumor markers are used to evaluate how well a patient has responded to treatment and to check for tumor recurrence. Research is currently being conducted on the role of tumor markers in detection, diagnosis and treatment of cancers. According to the National Cancer Institute, tumor markers are useful in identifying potential problems, but they must be used with other tests for the following reasons:
- People with benign conditions also may have elevated levels of these substances in their blood.
- Not every person with a tumor has tumor markers.
- Some tumor markers are not specific to any one type of tumor.
The following is a brief description of some of the more useful tumor markers:
- Prostate-specific antigen – is always present in low concentrations in the blood of adult males. An elevated PSA level in the blood may indicate prostate cancer, but other conditions such as benign prostatic hyperplasia and prostatitis also can raise PSA levels. PSA levels are used to evaluate how a patient has responded to treatment and to check for tumor recurrence.
- Prostatic acid phosphatase – originates in the prostate and is normally present in small amounts in the blood. In addition to prostate cancer, elevated levels of PAP may indicate testicular cancer, leukemia and non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, as well as some noncancerous conditions.
- CA 125 – ovarian cancer is the most common cause of elevated CA 125, but cancers of the uterus, cervix, pancreas, liver, colon, breast, lung and digestive tract also can raise CA 125 levels. Several noncancerous conditions can also elevate CA 125. CA 125 is mainly used to monitor the treatment of ovarian cancer.
- Carcinoembryonic antigen – is normally found in small amounts in the blood. Colorectal cancer is the most common cancer that raises this tumor marker. Several other cancers also can raise levels of carcinoembryonic antigen.
- Alpha-fetoprotein – is normally elevated in pregnant women since it is produced by the fetus. However, AFP is not usually found in the blood of adults. In men, and in women who are not pregnant, an elevated level of AFP may indicate liver cancer or cancer of the ovary or testicle. Noncancerous conditions also may cause elevated AFP levels.
- Human chorionic gonadotropin – is another substance that appears normally in pregnancy and is produced by the placenta. If pregnancy is ruled out, HCG may indicate cancer in the testis, ovary, liver, stomach, pancreas and lung. Marijuana use can also raise HCG levels.
- CA 19-9 – this marker is associated with cancers in the colon, stomach and bile duct. Elevated levels of CA 19-9 may indicate advanced cancer in the pancreas, but it also is associated with noncancerous conditions, including gallstones, pancreatitis, cirrhosis of the liver and cholecystitis.
- CA 15-3 – this marker is most useful in evaluating the effect of treatment for women with advanced breast cancer. Elevated levels of CA 15-3 also are associated with cancers of the ovary, lung and prostate, as well as noncancerous conditions such as benign breast or ovarian disease, endometriosis, pelvic inflammatory disease and hepatitis. Pregnancy and lactation also can raise CA 15-3 levels.
- CA 27-29 – this marker, like CA 15-3, is used to follow the course of treatment in women with advanced breast cancer. Cancers of the colon, stomach, kidney, lung, ovary, pancreas, uterus and liver also may raise CA 27-29 levels. Noncancerous conditions associated with this substance are first trimester pregnancy, endometriosis, ovarian cysts, benign breast disease, kidney disease and liver disease.
- Lactate dehydrogenase – is a protein that normally appears throughout the body in small amounts. Many cancers can raise LDH levels, so it is not useful in identifying a specific kind of cancer. Measuring LDH levels can be helpful in monitoring treatment for cancer. Noncancerous conditions that can raise LDH levels include heart failure, hypothyroidism, anemia and lung or liver disease.
- Neuron-specific enolase – is associated with several cancers, but it is used most often to monitor treatment in patients with neuroblastoma or small cell lung cancer.